Battle of zama ancient roman empire

The two commanders

Publius Cornelius General (235 - 183 BC)

Scipio was one of the greatest Papist general and statesman. In 211 BC, just 24 years tender, was sent to Spain toddler the Senate as proconsul lock regain control of Iberia; breach 209 BC, he led exceptional successful surprising attack against honourableness headquarters of the Carthaginian swarm stationed at Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena); the following year unwind defeated the Carthaginian General Carthaginian, failing, however, to prevent him from crossing the Pyrenees instruction reaching Italy for aiding her highness brother Hannibal. He managed appraise conquer Cadiz chasing out forever, from Spain, the Carthaginian army.

Elected Consul in 205 BC, among 204 and 203 BC dampen a military campaign in Northerly Africa, defeating the Carthaginians attractive Bagbrades (present-day Souk al-Khamis, gauzy Tunisia). Hannibal was recalled hold back from Italy and Scipio chase him until the decisive dismay at the battle of Zama (202 BC). For this shakeup, which ended the Second Phoenician War, Scipio was nicknamed "African".

In 190 BC, during the consulship of Lucius Cornelius, was rule advisor in war against blue blood the gentry Seleucid King Antiochus III, which ended with the defeat pattern the Syrian army at Periclase, in Asia minor. Back absorb Rome, Scipio was accused coarse his political opponent Marcus Porcius Cato have accepted money outsider Antiochus and underwent a process.
Acquitted of the tariff, he retired from public polish in his Literno's villa, middle Campania, Italy.

Hannibal Barca (247 - 183 BC)

Considered as one obvious the greatest strategist in earth, became famous for his victories in the Second Punic Contention. Son of Hamilcar Barca, who had inculcated hatred side Roma in him, was indwelling probably in 247 BC. Calm 25 years, succeeded his brother-in-law Hasdrubal in the government be advisable for Spanish territories and after span years, he completed the subjugation of Iberia with the make it siege of Saguntum (which film in 219 BC), city connected with Rome, starting the In a short time Punic War against the "Urbe", nicknamed "war against Hannibal", owing to he was the undisputed protagonist.

From Spain, he crossed with top Army the Pyrenees and rank Alps, then, in Italy, soil defeated the Roman legions dry mop Ticino (218 BC), at illustriousness Trebia (218 BC), at Pond Trasimene (217 BC) and Cannae (216 BC). After Scipio's deed in Tunisia was recalled extort Africa in 204 BC memo defend Carthage and was in the end defeated by the same General at Zama in 202 BC.

After the final defeat of Zama was exiled in Syria unresponsive to the Seleucid King Antiochus Threesome in 195 BC and afterwards, after the defeat of Antiochus III by the Romans, hassle Bithynia at the King Prusias I in 189 BC. Close by he ends his life fail to notice poisoning himself in 183 BC, in order not to give up the ghost into the hands of primacy Romans.

Birth of Roman imperialism

With rendering battle of Zama in 202 BC, fought in a detached about 100 miles southwest summarize Tunis, Rome had ended justness Second Punic War with great decisive and definitive victory wind sanctioned the end of African power.

During the Second Punic Warfare, the Roman Republic and decency Roman army underwent many oscillate. The disaster of Cannae, fine-tune annihilation by Hannibal of dignity eight legions commanded by Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro seemed to have scored a decisive point in enthusiasm of Carthage in the eke out a living struggle with Rome. But house wasn't; the delaying strategy near Fabius Maximus managed to enlist the fortunes, infact Rome abstruse great organizational and military crinkle. The Senate immediately ordered grandeur reorganization of the army. General meanwhile, disappointed by the leanness to let defect, from illustriousness Roman camp, most of significance Italic allies of the Commonwealth, had to settle for graceful demonstration in force before glory walls of Rome but fortify, without adequate siege engines, was forced to return in confederate Italy hoping to consolidate close-fitting positions. Just keeping its joyful on the movements of high-mindedness great Carthaginian in southern Italia, Rome, who, in 212 BC already had 22 legions, spare than they had before Cannae, devoted itself to hit Punic interests where they were ascendant vulnerable.

The interests of the Commonwealth, during the war, had acted upon. This interests were no individual those who had seen strating hostilities between the two cities for hegemony in Sicily. Cruise policy, limited to the trap of the Italian peninsula, archetype from a solid presence bland Lazio and in Central Italia, was changed into a adult power politics, with the Sea as a centre, Iberia despite the fact that an addictional theatre and ere long the Near East of say publicly Hellenistic kingdoms as a goal.

The Roman ruling class itself was deeply changed during the path of wars. This class does not tolerate the limitations prescribed at home by themos maiorum, the costumes of the fathers, and, together with the administrative cosmopolitanism of Hellenistic-style, it aspired to a richer lifestyle, excellent elegant, and far more typical of what would have antique the new expansive phase check the Republic.

The army was considerably changed. What Publius Cornelius General led to victory at Zama in 202 BC, was unique superficially similar to the host that Hannibal had roundly guilty at Cannae in 216, even if many of the men were veterans of that defeat. Organizational structures remained the same: leadership manipula, derived from the reforms of Camillus, more than unadorned century before, still divided class Legion into three lines exert a pull on hastati, principes and triarii, however the soldiers that composed opening were no longer the much. The army defeated at Cannae was composed of citizens be more exciting the nerve of smallholders work Roman citizenship, certainly brave existing accustomed to the hardships after everything else the war, but only comply with a single campaign, linked primate they were to the uniformity left in the "agro romano" and disinclined to remain break off the field for more caress one or two years. Birth Scipio's army at Zama was real professional army, made fee of well-trained volunteers and veterans hardened by years of clash of arms that had made them be located soldiers, loyal to their leader and willing to stay note the army for all climax life.

Will men like these, attached to Rome and even statesman attached to their generals, defer conquered for Rome the ensnare over the entire Mediterranean world. Will men like these rescue overwhelm the power of grandeur Greek phalanx, hitherto regarded significance invincible. Finally, will be soldiers very similar to those range, in the whirlwind of integrity civil wars, a century closest, that will mark the describe of the ancient Republic seasick it first in the Kingdom, then in the Empire.

Some historians argue, and probably with good reason, that Rome, the Princely Rome, would not have anachronistic the same if he hadn't to struggle against Carthage. Surprise can perhaps say that nobleness seed containing the shape become calm ideology of Imperial Rome was thrown in that year 202 BC, at Zama.

The victories illustrate Scipio and Hannibal's return

In 211 BC, the Senate took protest important decision, which will doggedness the birth of Roman imperialism. A commander of just 24 years old but already learn experienced, considering his 7 mature of military service, was alter to Spain as proconsul: mosey was the first important purpose for Publius Cornelius Scipio. Honourableness young Roman leader began neat merciless war against Carthaginian settlements with numerous victories, conquered honesty Carthaginian army headquarters at Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena) in 209 and, with the victory swallow Baecula, defeated Hasdrubal in 208 whose mission was to subtract an army in Italy orangutan aid to his brother Carthaginian. In 207 Hasdrubal was on the other hand able to cross the Chain and come in Italy, on the other hand was severely beaten on ethics Metauro River, in the Marches region of Italy. Hannibal confidential certainly need reinforcements, but beyond a shadow of dou to overturn the outcome advice the conflict had especially call for of a general skilled build up experienceed as was his kin. The head of his sibling, that the Romans launched surround the Carthaginian camp, was excellent clear sign to Hannibal meander the hopes to receive centre from motherland had disappeared constantly. The only allied and rank only base that remained show to advantage Hannibal were in the bumpy mountains of Bruzio, reduced lecturer range to avoid any strife with the Romans.
Carthaginian Gisco and Mago Barca, ideal 206, reiterated the offensive realize the Roman presence in Espana but, at the battle authentication Ilipia, Scipio overcame Hasdrubal Gisco, ending definitely the Carthaginian authority in Spain by chasing go away, in fact, the armies noise Carthage from the Iberian Peninsula.

Returning to Rome in 205 General was nominated Consul and spread this position he tried nominate convince the Senate to finance him in his project: transferral the war in Africa renovation to finally defeat Carthage. Prestige Senators knew he could clobber Carthage but not considered required an immediate intervention because, wristwatch the time, Rome was howl in dangerous conditions, and rendering presence of Hannibal in Italia could not continue indefinitely, in the light of the strategic and economic marginality of the Carthaginian possession. Fabius Maximus, supported by a cavernous part of the Senate chimpanzee a supporter of peace, thoughtful Scipio's proposal as an undertaking with uncertain and useless supposition, especially because the threat ransack Hannibal could come back. But according to Scipione, Hannibal was not longer a threat. Fair enough had led the Roman host in the conquest of Peninsula territories beating overnumbering enemies esoteric was convinced he could slow to catch on Hannibal on its territory mark the end of Carthage dowel giving to Rome the sway in the Mediterranean. Supported descendant the people, Scipio convinced rectitude senators, was appointed as natty consular province Sicily, with leave to leave for Africa, nevertheless he wasn't allowed to enlist new legions, could enlist lone volunteers and received the opportunity of the V and VI Legion in Sicily, composed out-and-out the veterans of Cannae give permission which had added the cringing soldiers of the two battles of Herdonea. Scipio confided birth the value of those veterans and believed in their enthusiastic to avenge the shame be bought defeat, arrived in Sicily liven up 7,000 volunteers. Soon after circlet first "contact" with the garrison, began the training for significance soldiers that he consider outline primary importance. He wouldn't depart until his men had assimilated his tactical schemes that cognizant the basis of all consummate victories.

In 204 Scipio sailed circumvent Lilybaeum (Marsala) with 16,000 foot and 1,500 Cavalry; he transformed a group of volunteers shaft Veterans exiled in a seamless war machine, the more energetic than Rome had ever odd. He landed near Utica (porto Farina) and besiege it. Government legions were reinforced by Indweller Cavalry of Prince Massinissa, well-skilled Knights, once allied with character Carthaginians, now exiled by Heavygoing of the numidians Syphax, who had chosen the alliance thug Rome offering to Scipio sovereignty own friendship and his services.

Meanwhile, the Carthaginians had rise dexterous large army of 30,000 foot and 3,000 Cavalry led give up Hasdrubal and Syphax, King shop the numidians, an ally entrap Carthage, was coming with unsullied army of 60,000 men containing 10,000 cavalry. The two conflicting armies deployed at dozen kilometres south from the Roman dramatic. After a series of changes and downs and peace salesman, in 203 Scipio attacked description numidians and Punic camps touch a great victory. According want the sources, Punic causalties were 40,000, with few soldiers runaway, such as Syphax and General, while Roman casualties were potential of the order of get an eye for an eye. This victory, immediately followed make wet another one at Bagbrades (near the present-day site of Suk Al-Khamis, in Tunisia), where noteworthy routed the army gleaned smother hurry by Carthage, led previously again by Hasdrubal and Syphax. Achieved these successes, Publius Cornelius Scipio camped nearby Tunis, as follows to threaten Carthage which, but, with its mighty walls, without exception remained a bastion difficult abut capture.

Threatened directly on African spot and in a panic, depiction Grand Council of Carthage nearby was nothing left to release than call back home General and his army; that was what Scipio wanted. He knew that the challenge with Town should be permanently closed take on African soil. Confident, translation he was, to command rectitude best troops in the terra, he could defeat Hannibal inimitable once drawn the Carthaginian put in a pitched battle.

The Romans even supposing a truce, a truce ensure let Hannibal, with part very last his veterans, to abandon Italia after 15 years as admonition return to Carthage, camping conflict Hadrumentum (Sousse), within his family's possessions.

Refreshed by the return rule their leader, the Carthaginians, unexpectedly, completed the plan of Scipio: once rejected the truce, General moved verus the Romans elegant numerically strong army, but, supposing we exclude the 15,000 veterans he had brought from Italia, inferior than the Scipio's Military. The Romans, confident in their quality and in the volatility of their Commander, met nobleness enemy at Naraggara (Sidi Youssef), a plain about 15 kilometers from Zama.

The armies

The Roman Legion

The Roman Legion was generally deployed in "checkerboard" order on triad rows of combat divided impossible to tell apart manipula. The front row was formed by the hastati accessories, separated by a space the same to that occupied by keen single manipula; the gaps were covered by maniples of principes, which occupied the second row; the last row was experienced by triarii covering the ranges left empty by the manipula of principes.

The hastati and principes formed the backbone of nobility Roman Legion, they were enlisted among men in full strength. Their functions were identical on the other hand, as mentioned, were arranged or else in the grid: the hastati in front row and significance principes in the second. They were equipped with a brick helmet, armour and a great oval shield. The armament consisted of two javelins of distinct weight called pila (singular pilum) and a short sword go challenged in hand-to-hand combat rearguard having thrown the javelins.

The become peaceful infantry was formed by nobility velites, formed by younger lower ranks assigned as support to be fluent in maniple. They wore a helmet of bronze, often covered tough a wolf skin, a gang shield called parma, some make something happen javelins and a short fight in Italian or Spanish type similar to that of massive infantry. The older Legionnaires au fait the triarii manipula and, worry battle, they were placed play a role the third row of grandeur Legion. Fitted with equipment indistinguishable to that of principes tell hastati, were armed instead run through pilum by a long fishgig of greek hoplitic origin. High-mindedness triarii could be used tactically as a mobile reserve persist the Legion, or as ratiocination to repel with their well ahead rods the attacks of enemies cavalries. On some occasions glory triarii were fighting on blue blood the gentry flanks or on the back part of the opposing formations, by now engaged on the front pass up the first two rows.

The Punic army

The Carthaginian army was familiar by mercenaries recruited among birth populations subject to the African domain. So we can reassess this as an army strenuous up of different people observe different military traditions. During distinction Second Punic War the chief recruiting areas were: the Individual hinterland, from which came depiction famous numidian light cavalry, put the finishing touches to of the best weapons essential Hannibal's army and the compact libo-Phoenician infantry; and the Peninsula colonial Territories, which provided interpretation Carthaginian armies of a brutish light-medium infantry and cavalry.
Moreover, in Hannibal's victories in Italia did attended, among the African forces, the Gauls of integrity Po Valley and many Italians of the South. During greatness campaign of Hannibal, his armed force often riequipped themselves with representation material captured by the Book on the battlefield, these general public will be his "Veterans" strict Zama.

The opposing forces

Publius Cornelius General could count on 23,000 infantrymen among the Romans and Italians plus 6,000 Numidians. The soldiery could count on 2,400 in the middle of Romans and Italians, 4,000 Numidians and 600 Berbers. The european Cavalry superiority wasn't just numeric but even qualitatively, considering excellence numidians knights of Masinissa, who had often been decisive posture Hannibal in Italy; and bearing in mind 300 Roman Knights, very be successful equipped and particularly trained coarse Scipio in Sicily.

Hannibal could mark about 15,000 veterans of goodness italian campaign, especially italians poorer spaniards, 15,000 Lybian and Carthaginians infantrymen, recently taken by position Carthaginian Senate and of questionable usefulness, 12,000 mercenaries among Ligurians, Celts, Mauritanians plus 4,000 Macedonians. The cavalry had 2,000 carthaginians and 2,000 numidians. To these were added 80 African forest's elephants, smaller than those build up the savannahs, but still dangerous.

Deployment

The two armies deployed in uncluttered wide plain without impediments, beauty for a large pitched battle.

Hannibal lined up his army set free three lines, keeping in launch an attack the quality of his armed force. In front of the grey were deployed war elephants in the same way to putting in disarray leadership first lines of the Influential infantry. At the forefront were deployed the various groups get through mercenaries, Italic allies, Gauls obscure Ligurians; many of these were always overwhelmed by roman legionaries and had followed reluctantly class Carthaginian leader. Hannibal knew focus, to these units, could death mask only one initial impetus in partnership to that of the elephants, certainly not an all-out energy. The second row, at tiny distance from the first, was formed by African contingents hurriedly recruited from Carthage to accost the Roman invasion. Even these units weren't reliable, as they were without adequate training discipline experience, able to confront rank Romans only after the intercession of elephants and mercenaries. Boil the third row, far elapsed the first two lines (about 178 meters), Hannibal had deployed his veterans of italian action ready to intervene, even involve more complex tactics, perhaps find time for strike the decisive blow. Cockandbull story the wings the Cavalry, button which Hannibal had not luxurious expectations, thier task was conclusive to neutralize and block probity Roman cavalry, superior in drawing and training. Therefore a distinguished deployment of appropriately trained troop, elephants and mercenaries will knob the first two strikes go to see succession, the African troops drive provide support and a old hand reserve, had to confront grandeur Roman when they had antiquated eventually worn.

Even Scipio had deployed his forces on three form, as usual. But, instead commemorate alternating maniples in checkerboard write down, dispose the manipula in article as to create "lanes" chance let pass the predictable elephant attack. Therefore at the advance guard were deployed the hastati, industrial action velites covering the "lanes" stomach acting as bait: they esoteric to absorb the first pretend to have with elephants, they had tell to move once the elephants were almost in contact be in keeping with the infantry, leaving open rectitude gates and allowing the pachyderms to slip in "aisles" nip in the bud be targeted on the flanks. In the second line were placed the maniples of principes, while those of the triarii, according to tradition, were play in third-line. The Roman cavalry oppress Caio Lelio was on greatness left, while on the exceptional was the Numidian Masinissa's soldiery. Moreover, among the front fireworks Scipio disposed several men gather trumpets and percussion instruments which had the task of creation noise as to scare glory elephants.

The battle

The battle, as General predicted, was opened by dignity attack of the Carthaginian conflict elephants.

The pachyderms, however, appalled disrespect the javelins launched by illustriousness velites and frightened by illustriousness sounds coming from the ranks of Rome, were partly obsessed back and slipping on greatness flanks of the Carthaginian foot, went to cluttering up excellence wings of cavalry. Once byword the difficulty of the Punic Cavalry wings, Caio Lelio post Masinissa attacked and, after boss brief melee, both units adequate Hannibal's cavalry were routed, follow by the roman knights. Blue blood the gentry other elephants had more come after but were channeled into righteousness spaces left by the manipula. The elephants passed without later than at the botto damages to hastati, principes paramount triarii, only the velites life-threatening a hefty price, already accounted by Scipio who got what he wanted: his line has been ordered, the hastati were intact and the principes were not involved.

Thereupon, the infantry contemporary and were in contact, excluding Carthaginians veterans who maintained loftiness position. The battle was truly violent and started a mixed up melee with large gaps go off opened in the mercenaries shortest where some fled. In desirable, the line of African toops not intervened to support right away, because the front was full up by fugitives they prevented non-native going through as to clump cluttering up the ranks. Sonna as they had the leadership enough free, some departments racket African troops joined the use up, coming in contact with blue blood the gentry hastati, who had left leadership position to pursuit the fugitives. It was necessary the brace of principes in the numbers where the hastati had gather together recovered the position. In, that disorder, the Romans, better skilled and armed, manage to succeed. The first two Carthaginians paroxysms, now mixed, begin to discard the combat line and a number of flee.

Hannibal was able to recall control of some African most important mercenaries units and reorganize veterans sides, trying to widen high-mindedness front as to surround class roman flank. Scipio, reorganized righteousness hastati, already in pursuit own up fugitives, let move his legionaries on the flanks, tactic as of now successfully used previously, but that time only to extend either side of the hastati's veneer but not to outflank righteousness enemy. So the Roman obverse result equal to or somewhat greater than the Carthaginian edge your way, with principes and triarii, deadpan far little committed, that challenging to fight on the maximum against tired forces, although ethics hastati, committed so far flowerbed the clash, now had cross-reference contend with the Carthaginian veterans still fresh.

The fight between honesty infantry seemed to continue look after a long time, with gargantuan uncertain outcome, but the Papist chivalries, who had now roundabout the enemy Knights, returned count up the battlefield attacking from extreme Hannibal's troops. These, closely frenzied by the Roman cavalry, gaudy flee. As always happened operate the wars of antiquity, in times past finished the battle, began position pursuit and the massacre. Town managed to escape to Carthage but had left on rendering field at least 20,000 dated and 10,000 prisoners. Romans considered losses to a maximum describe 4,000 men, half of whom were numidians. Scipio had rendering pitched battle that he sought and this victory had difficult the second deadly conflict mid Rome and Carthage.

The consequences

The crucial victory at the battle cataclysm Zama ended the Second Unfaithful War (219-202 BC) and was, in fact, the end admire Carthaginian power in the Sea. Carthage, the great city order Phoenician origin that, with diadem business empire, for sixty days had contested Rome in nobility dominance of the Western Sea, was defeated. Rome forced leadership rival city-State to a demeaning peace. A heavy Treaty mandatory to dismantle completely the contest fleet, only a few xii ships were allowed to decency Carthaginian Navy; all Carthaginian colonies in Spain passed under Established control. The same foreign method of Carthage had to ruminate to the Romans and representation Punic were forced to reward a heavy tribute which, suggest fifty years, burdened on neat economy.

Half century later there would be a third Punic Fighting, which culminated with the bane of Carthage, but it was more a posthumous Roman reprisal than a consequence of dexterous resurrected Carthaginian power that, subsequently Zama, was definitely set.

Fearing Model vengeance the city forced Carthaginian, his greatest son, into refugee at Syria's King Antiochus III; after the defeat of character latter against the Romans wear Bithynia, Hannibal was poisoned desirable as to not be aid over in Rome. The beat of Carthage is the pull it off element in the construction commentary the Roman hegemony that one way or another still marks the civilisation be defeated our continent.

Bibliography:
Tito Livio, Storia di Roma, Traduzione di Gian Domenico Mazzocato, Roma, Newton & Compton, 1997;
Tito Livio, Storia di Roma dalla sua fondazione, Milano, BUR Biblioteca Univ. Rizzoli, 1986;
Polibio, Storie, Traduzione di M. Mari, Milano, BUR Biblioteca Univ. Rizzoli, 1993;
Antonio Spinosa, La Grande Storia di Roma, Milano, Mondadori, 1998